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Date Posted: 18:36:43 07/27/05 Wed
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PROFESSIONAL ETHICS – GE035
MODAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS UNIT - 1
Part A
1. What is the need to focus on Engineering Ethics?
The work of an engineer can affect public safety, health and can influence business practices and politics. Over a period of time, various cases involving improper ethical judgment has led engineers to gain increased sense of their professional responsibilities. The study of the subject is to sensitize one to important ethical issues. The idea is to develop the ability to think critically and independently about the moral issues and apply these during professional practices.
2. Define Personal and Professional Ethics?
Personally ethics deal with how well an individual treat others in their day to day lives. However, professional ethics involves choice on an organizational level, rather than a personal level. Many of the problems are different as they involve relationship between two corporations, between a corporation and the government or between corporation and group of individuals. The types of problems posed here are not encountered in personal ethics.
3. What is ‘Moral Autonomy’?
‘Moral Autonomy’ is the ability to think critically and independently about moral issues and to apply this moral thinking to situations that arise in the course of professional engineering practice. It is the skill and attitude of thinking rationally about the critical issues on the basis of moral considerations and general response to moral issues. This foundation of moral concern or general responsiveness to moral values, derives from the training we receive as children and the attitude we develop in being sensitive to the needs and requirement of other around us.
4. What are the types of enquiry?
Engineering ethics groups various enquiries into ‘Normative’, ‘Conceptual, and as ‘Factual’ enquiries. These are defined as follows:
a. Normative Enquiry: These enquiries seek to identify the values that should guide individuals and groups. Ex : To what extent engineer has obligation to protect public safety in given situation? Whose judgment to follow – management or association? Etc
b. Conceptual Enquiry : These enquiries seek to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas, principles and issues in engineering ethics.
c. Factual Enquiries: These enquiries seek to provide facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues.
5. Define the terms ‘Profession’ and ‘Professionalism’?
Profession can be applied only to certain occupation that meets following special criteria:
a. Requires extensive formal education and should have sophisticated skills and theoretical knowledge, judgment and discretion. Work is not routine or automated. Also continuing education and updating knowledge are required.
b. Special Societies / organization of the professionals (leading in the field) are allowed to be formed by the public to play a major role in setting standards for admission to profession, drafting of code of ethics, enforcing code of ethics and representing the profession before the public and government.
c. The occupation should serve some important fact of public good.
Professionalism: Accepting professional obligations that are moral responsibilities towards the public as well as employers, clients, colleagues and sub ordinates.
6. What are the basic concepts of right action?
Basic aspects of ‘Right Action’ is explained by considering four ethical theories each differing to what is considered as the most important moral concept.
Utilitarianism seeks to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected.
Duty Ethics contends that there are duties that should be performed regardless of whether these acts lead to most good. Examples are, to treat others fairly or the duty not to injure others.
Right ethics emphasizes that we all have moral rights and any action that violates these rights is ethically unacceptable.
Virtue ethics regards actions as right that manifest good character traits (virtues) and regards actions as bad that display bad character traits.
7. What do you understand by ‘self interest’ and ‘ethical egoism’?
Moral reasons and ideals form a distinct category of value different from other categories like – self interest, customs and religion.
Each of the ethical theories recognizes importance of self interest. Utilitarianism takes into account one’s own good of others. Duty ethics emphasizes duties to ourselves including the duty to respect ourselves. Right ethics accept our rights to pursue our own good. Virtue ethicist emphasizes the importance of self respect. At the same time each of these theories insists that the pursuit of self interest must be balanced and restrained by moral responsibilities towards other people.
A view challenges this and the view that tries to reduce the morality to the pursuit of self interest. This view is called ‘ethical egoism’. It is called so because, it says that sole duty of each of us is to maximize his or her own good. Proponents of this view are Thomas Hobbes and novelist Ayn Rand. Ethical egoist defend this view by contending that society benefits the most when (a) individual pursue their private good and (b) corporations pursue maximum profits in a competitive free market. The idea is that this will make economy prosper thereby benefiting everyone.
However, one can strongly doubt that private pursuit of self interest, whether at the individual or at corporation level always work out to everyone’s advantage. For most part it may work, but not always. There is concern for morality in such cases.
8. Explain the levels of moral development suggested by Kohlberg?
Kohlberg’s Theory: He suggested that there are three main levels of moral development. At this three levels he or she adopts different kind of reasoning and motivation in response to moral questions.
Pre conventional Level : It is the most primitive type. In this right conduct is the one which benefits oneself. Individuals are motivated by benefits, desires to avoid punishment, not questioning the power etc. This is the level of development of all young children and few adults who never manage to go beyond it.
Conventional Level: In this norms of one’s family group or society are accepted as the final standard of morality. The norms are adopted uncritically being correct as they represent authority. Here more than the self interest, desire to please others and to meet the expectations of the social unit is the guiding factors. As per the Kohleberg’s study most adult never mature beyond this stage.
Post Conventional Level: In this one understands the principle of ethics clearly, the rights and wrongs and also their duties and responsibilities to society. All the actions are oriented for morality sake and not with any ulterior motive. They doi not accept unethical practice and do their best to tutor others. Only small fraction of the people grow up to this level.
9. What are the steps in confronting moral dilemmas?
Steps in confronting moral dilemmas are the following:
a. Identify the relevant moral factors and reasons. What are the conflicting moral responsibilities competing rights and clashing ideals involved.
b. Gather all available facts that are pertinent to the moral factors involved.
c. If possible order the moral considerations in order of importance as they apply to the situations.
d. Consider alternate course of action as ways of resolving the dilemma, tracing full implications.
e. Talk with colleagues seeking their suggestions and alternate perspectives on the dilemma.
f. Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant moral factors and reason’s in the light of the facts.
10 What are the practical skills that will help produce effective independent thought about moral issues?
Various skills that will help produce effective independent thought about moral issues are listed below:
a. Proficient in recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering. This involves being able to distinguish them from as well as relate them to problem in law, economics, religious doctrine or the descriptions of physical systems.
b. Skill in comprehending, clarifying and critically assessing arguments on opposing sides moral issues.
c. The ability to form consistent and comprehensive viewpoints based upon considerations of relevant facts.
d. Imaginative awareness of alternative responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties.
e. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties. This includes a willingness to undergo and tolerate some uncertainty in making troublesome moral judgment or decisions.
f. Increased precision in the use of common ethical language, which is necessary in order to be able to express and defend one’s moral views adequately to others.
g. Enriched appreciation of both the possibilities of using rational dialogue resolving moral conflicts and of the need for tolerance of differences in perspective among morally reasonably people.
h. An awakened sense of the importance of integrating one’s professional life and personal convictions – that the importance of maintaining one’s moral integrity.
11. What are professional responsibilities?
Professional Responsibility: The intention of good engineering is the creation of useful and safe technological products. Only a responsible engineer- conscientious, safety conscious and imaginative engineer -is likely to achieve good outcome . Hence, most basic and professional virtue is ‘Professional Responsibility’. Professional responsibility is an umbrella virtue that encompasses wide variety of more specific virtues that acquire importance at certain situations. These are : Self Direction virtue, Public Spirited Virtues, Team Work Virtues and Proficiency virtues.
12. What is ‘self respect’?
‘Self Respect’ refers to the virtue of properly valuing oneself. Just as we have responsibility to show worth towards other people, we have a duty act morally appropriate ways towards ourselves. We have to have healthy sense of our own rights. Self respect is connected with all other major virtues. Self respect provides major motive for maintaining integrity. Other related virtues of self respect are honor, self control, courage and good judgment.
13. What is ‘ moral integrity’ ?
‘Moral Integrity’ is the show of consistency in our attitude, emotion, and conduct in relation to justified moral values. Moral integrity requires that our lives be unified where fundamental values are at stake and not compartmentalized. There must be consistency between working life and personal life. If it is not, it is infuriates college going children when they see split personality in their parents as they see it as hypocrisy. Maintaining moral integrity is made complicated by the fact that few jobs allow a perfect match between one’s personal ideals and one’s work activities.
14.Explain Rule utilitarianism and rational desires?
‘Rule-Utilitarianism’ is one of the version of utilitarianism and regards ‘moral rules’ as primary. According to it, we ought to act always on those rules that if generally followed would produce most good for most people. Also a moral code is justified when it is optimal code that if adopted would enhance the public good than any other alternate codes.
Rational desires are those we would have and approve of it if after the study of full implication of its usage, they are found to satisfy requirement of every one in general. Some self destructive desire such as the desire to use dangerous drugs are not rational and when we see the full implication we will not approve of them
15. What are membership criteria for being an engineer?
Membership criteria for an engineer are the following :
a. Earning a bachelor’s degree in engineering from a college approved by Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.
b. Performing work commonly recognized as what engineers do.
c. Being officially registered and recognized as a Professional Engineer. This requires passing engineering-in-training exam. Working as apprentice in responsible engineering firm. Passing a professional exam. And paying requisite registration fees.
d. Acting in morally responsible ways while practicing engineering. The standards for responsible conduct might be those specified in engineering codes of ethics.
Part B:
1. Discuss the following case study to resolve moral dilemma.
(First step in solving an ethical problem is to completely understand all the issues involved. The issues involved in understanding ethical problems can be split into three categories. Factual, Conceptual and moral.
Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning and applicability of a idea. For example defining a what is bribe as opposed to acceptable gift. In case of bribe, the value is known fact. What is not known is whether accepting it will lead to unfair influence on a business decision. If it does not, it is a gift. Similarly if the value of gift is very small like ticket for a sport event, and has no bearing on any decision, it is construed at gift.
In case of factual issues, one need to get sufficient data to identify the issue. For example, it is said that industrial emission, vehicle pollution etc will cause global warming. But there are no valid data to substantiate. F If it is substantiated, product may have to be redesigned.
Finally moral issues are resolved, by deciding which moral principle is to be applied for the given situation. For example, if it is identified that a ‘gift’ is offered or bribe is offered, it is very easy to resolve moral issues. If it is bribe, it is clearly unethical.)
2. Discuss the scope and aims of ‘ Engineering Ethics’?
Over a period of time, there were a number of accidents like, Challenger disaster, Bhopal Gas tragedy, Three Mile islands accident etc which have squarely pointed the finger of blame on engineers who could not decisively stand up to the ethical dilemmas and hence were found responsible. As a matter of fact, professional engineers are responsible in many ways for the safety and welfare of the public in general. In the absence of study of ethics, engineers are not able to resolve the ethical dilemmas that keep repeating in their day to day life. The designer of Pinto car of Ford company had the dilemma on how to balance the safety of the people who would be riding in the car against the need to produce Pinto at a price that would be competitive in the market.
Second, a product or a project goes through various stages of concept design and manufacture followed by testing sales and service. Engineers carry out or supervise these activities at various stages. There will be times when their activities will ultimately lead to a product that is unsafe or less useful. This may happen intentionally, or under pressure or in ignorance. All these point out that an engineer is always under pressure to oblige the management or supervisor which ultimately lead to compromise the safety and welfare of the people.
As can be seen in the above cases, it is important for the engineer to resolve the ethical dilemmas that arise in his professional life. The study of ‘Engineering Ethics’ is to sensitize one to important ethical issues before you have to confront them. The study is to develop the skill called ‘Moral Autonomy’ in the professionals so that they develop the ability to think critically and independently about the moral issues and to apply these moral thinking to situations that arise in the course of professional engineering practice. The goal is to train one to analyze complex problems and learn to resolve these problems in most ethical manner.
3. Discuss the theories pertaining to ‘Moral Autonomy’ with specific reference to ‘consensus and controversies’?
Kohlberg’s Theoy and Gilligan’s Theory deals with moral autonomy. These deal with psychology of moral development in an individual; These are described below:
Kohlberg’s Theory: He suggested that there are three main levels of moral development. At this three levels he or she adopts different kind of reasoning and motivation in response to moral questions.
Pre conventional Level : It is the most primitive type. In this right conduct is the one which benefits oneself. Individuals are motivated by benefits, desires to avoid punishment, not questioning the power etc. This is the level of development of all young children and few adults who never manage to go beyond it.
Conventional Level: In this norms of one’s family group or society are accepted as the final standard of morality. The norms are adopted uncritically being correct as they represent authority. Here more than the self interest, desire to please others and to meet the expectations of the social unit is the guiding factors. As per the Kohleberg’s study most adult never mature beyond this stage.
Post Conventional Level: In this one understands the principle of ethics clearly, the rights and wrongs and also their duties and responsibilities to society. All the actions are oriented for morality sake and not with any ulterior motive. They doi not accept unethical practice and do their best to tutor others. Only small fraction of the people grow up to this level.
Gilligan’s Theory: Carol Gilligan was once a student of Kohleberg who contested the theory put forth by him. She suggested that men are more interested in solving ethical problems by applying abstract moral principles, where as women focus their attention on the details of the context in which dilemma arises rather than involving general rules. Gilligan refers to this theory as ‘theory of care’ rather than ‘ ethics of rules and right’.
Concensus & Controversies: When an individual exercise moral autonomy, there is no assurance that they will arrive either the truth or the same verdict as other people exercising their moral autonomy. There is some differences not reducible to disagreement to over facts or errors in logical inference. In this case, tolerance requires us to allow room for disagreement among autonomous, reasonable and responsible persons.
There are important points about ‘authority’ and ‘moral autonomy’. Moral autonomy is exercised on the basis of moral concern for the people and recognition of good moral reason. Also there is a need for every one accept authority in an working environment. Authority streamlines the energies of the entire department in achieve the desired goals. Sometimes tension arises between individuals’ need for autonomy and the need for consensus about authority. Many conflicts arise when authority is abused or individuals are asked not to display their moral autonomy.
4. What is professional responsibilities and discuss the theories about virtues.
Professional Responsibility: The intention of good engineering is the creation of useful and safe technological products. Only a responsible engineer- conscientious, safety conscious and imaginative engineer -is likely to achieve good outcome . Hence, most basic and professional virtue is ‘Professional Responsibility’. Professional responsibility is an umbrella virtue that encompasses wide variety of more specific virtues that acquire importance at certain situations. These are described below:
Self Direction Virtues: Fundamental to exercise moral autonomy which encompasses, self understanding, humility, courage, self discipline, perseverance, fidelity to commitment, self respect and integrity.
Public Spirited Virtue: It is focused on good of clients and the wider public affected by one’s work. Important one’s are, respect for rights of others, not creating harm to others, safety welfare and generosity. Generosity means going beyond the minimum requirement in helping others by voluntarily giving their time, talent money to their professional societies.
Team Work Virtues: These virtues enable professional to work successfully with other people. This include, cooperation, ability to communicate effectively and respect for legitimate authority, loyalty to employer, responsible exercise of authority and ability to motivate others and to play a key role in authority structured corporation.
Proficiency virtue: These are masters of one’s craft. That is mastering good technical skills that characterize good engineering practice. Most important one is professional competence, diligence, alertness to danger and careful attention to details in performing tasks. Virtue of self renewal through continuous education.
5. Where and how do moral problems arise in engineering?
A product or a project goes through various stages of concept design and manufacture followed by testing sales and service. Engineers carry out or supervise these activities at various stages. There will be times when their activities will ultimately lead to a product that is unsafe or less useful. This may happen intentionally, or under pressure or in ignorance. All these point out that an engineer is always under pressure to oblige the management or supervisor which ultimately lead to compromise the safety and welfare of the people.
Moral problems arise in engineering whenever there are different perception of individuals on an issue. The perception of the manager (may or may not be an engineer) is to complete the project cost effectively and in time. Where as the perception of the designer engineer is safety and welfare of the public. These difference in understanding always leads to controversies. Ultimately, the engineer may have to compromise his moral values in the face of aggressive management.
A manager does not give due importance to the safety and welfare of the public unless the government or some one in authority ask him. In case of doctors and lawyers, there are organization like ‘medical council’ and ‘ bar council’ where the professionals are questioned about their work ethics. Where as there is no such organization to which an engineer / manager is answerable. Although there are organization like IEEE etc which specify code of ethics, they will not be able to enforce these ethics effectively. Maximum that can be done is to debar the member from membership. These organization are not in a position to ‘de license’ the concerned engineer as it is done in other profession. Hence, engineer is not in a position to face the moral dilemmas by taking shelter on any ‘codes of conduct’ and always he faces moral problems.
6. What is ‘virtue ethics’ ? Explain the virtue and the ‘Golden Mean’ of Aristotle.
It is the oldest type of ethical theory. Aristotle, the most influential of all virtue ethicists, defines virtues as acquired habit that enables us to engage effectively in rational activities that define us as human beings. As per him, wisdom and good judgment are the most important virtues.
‘Moral Virtues’ are tendencies acquired through habit formation to reach a proper balance between extreme in conduct, emotion, desire and attitude. That is one should find ‘golden mean’ between extremes of too much or too little.
For Foolhardiness -- Courage – Cowardice.
Revealing all in violation of tact and confidentiality – truthfulness – secretive
Wasting resources indiscriminately – generosity – miser.
Annoying --- Friendship – Sulky
Each of these govern particular aspect of our lives. Truthfulness governs talking truth. Courage governs confrontation with risk and dangers. Generosity governs giving and friendliness governs personal relationship
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