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Date Posted: 12:15:12 12/18/03 Thu
I am a naughty girl, I know >: ).
One of the biggest questions that has puzzled mankind throughout the ages is how gravity works. This new gravitational theory not only explains how gravity works, but shows how errors can arise in determining the positions of space probes, in determining the mass of the earth and other planets and in determining the value of G, the universal gravitational constant. This new theory of gravity is part of a more general Unified Field Theory (UFT) that shows how all of the known force fields work together. Once understood, this new UFT explains several heretofore unexplained phenomena in nature. In this brief write up, we will only deal with the gravitational part of the UFT.
John Anderson and colleagues of NASA JPL, experts in the determination of spacecraft positioning, have published discrepancies observed in the locations of Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and of the Ulysses solar probe. (Anderson, 1998, Katz, 1999, Murphy, 1999) To date these discrepancies have not been fully explained. Anderson has raised the question as to whether there is a fundamental problem in our understanding of gravity or in the timing provided by the atomic clocks as part of the Deep Space Network (DSN), which tracks the space probes. The space vehicles exhibit a pull toward the sun greater than current theory would predict by about 2e-8 cm/s2.
The general model now being used to describe the gravitational field proposes that gravitational waves run transverse to the direction of propagation of the gravitational energy. As predicted by Einstein, gravitational energy would travel at the velocity of light. To date, no experiments have been able to directly measure gravitational waves or even detect them, but from the interaction of the gravitational forces between a binary pulsar pair, Professor Joseph Taylor (Princeton U.) was able to deduce Einstein's prediction that the gravitational energy travels at the velocity of light. (Taylor, 1994--Nobel prize 1993)
Currently, many hundreds of millions of dollars have been spent , and hundreds of millions are now being sought, by an international university and investigative consortium in order to continue their research into gravity waves and to unravel the mysteries of gravity. It is our hope and belief that our work will bring further enlightenment to this challenge and provide the necessary, but different, perspective needed to understand gravity. The most significant aspect of this new theory is the discovery of diallel, gravitational-field lines. These diallel lines open up a whole new paradigm and help to explain several, heretofore, unexplainable problems in physics. With a new perspective we need some new physics. Papers are in preparation for publication to explain some of this new physics, and some information is available on our web site [www.allanstime.com]
In this new theory, two things are required for gravity to work. First, two bodies of some energy density to interact with each other, and second, connecting diallel lines which provide not only particle flow between the bodies, but also the flow of photon and gravitational information as well.
In chemistry and molecular spectroscopy we take for granted the seven electron shells that describe the energy states of electrons in their various atomic and molecular configurations. These seven shells along with the number of protons, neutrons and electrons give us all of our elements and isotopes of which we are aware. As these seven shells include all the electrons’ configurations around an atom or molecule, similarly, there are seven channels or states of conductivity for the diallel lines included in the new theory of gravity and in the UFT. These diallel lines are made of the same matter, and can serve as a conduit for any and all of the fundamental particles, as well as for photons.
The diallel lines are the conduits for the gravity information as well — bringing about the interaction between the two bodies. Just as a magnetic field requires no particles to make the field, so there is no graviton required to make a gravity field. In the same way that a moving charge sets up a condition for the generation of a magnetic field, a certain set of conditions will generate a gravitational field. The minimum conditions require two bodies, each with some level of energy density, together with a flow of charged particles along the diallel lines connecting these two bodies. The moving charges and particles in the diallel lines set up the necessary condition for the gravitational information to flow between the two bodies providing the gravitational interaction. The velocity of the gravitational information is a function of the conditions – typically at or faster than the velocity of light.
The frequency of this gravitational information is located in a band just above that of the cosmic rays that are associated with particle annihilation and generation. Like light, the velocity of gravity information is dependent on local circumstances. In the same manner that photons are associated with quantum transitions and all particles exist (interactively) in quantum states, the diallel lines have quantum states in which both particles and gravitational information travel. As particles and photons can be absorbed, refracted, or reflected, so can diallel lines when given the right local circumstances. A classic illustration of the refraction or bending of these diallel lines was determined by a team from the University of Alaska, who observed the bending of electron flow above extremely energetic thunderstorm activities. As will be seen below, the equations of state describing the fields for diallel lines contain the possibility for sign reversal, i.e. anti gravity or gravitational shielding.
Some additional perspectives are useful to appreciate aspects of the new physics needed for this new theory. We have long established in quantum physics the dual nature of matter: a particle can behave like a wave. Similarly, a photon, which is basically an electromagnetic bundle of energy oscillating at a particular frequency, can also behave as a particle. The electromagnetic field associated with a photon has no charge, and its energy is proportional to its frequency. The gravitational information cannot be considered as a particle or a bundle of energy per se. Operating above the cosmic frequency band, this gravitational information is communicated in a way not heretofore appreciated. We cannot write E = hv to describe its energy, and we need a new set of equations associated with this flow of information.
In summary then, the conditions needed for the gravitational field are two objects with some energy density (not just mass) and with diallel lines running between these two energy-density objects, which diallel lines are conducting particles, i.e. electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. These diallel lines then provide a conduit for the gravitational band of frequencies to communicate and generate a gravitational interaction between the two objects. Much like our circulatory and respiratory systems breath and pulse to sustain life, so these diallel lines are the communication channels to provide (pulse and breath in analogy) a balance, harmony and the function of nature.
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Mathematical Physics index History Topics Index
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General relativity is a theory of gravitation and to understand the background to the theory we have to look at how theories of gravitation developed. Aristotle's notion of the motion of bodies impeded understanding of gravitation for a long time. He believed that force could only be applied by contact, force at a distance being impossible, and a constant force was required to maintain a body in uniform motion.
Copernicus's view of the solar system was important as it allowed sensible consideration of gravitation. Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's understanding of the motion and falling bodies set the scene for Newton's theory of gravity which was presented in the Principia in 1687. Newton's law of gravitation is expressed by
F = G M1M2/d2
where F is the force between the bodies of masses M1, M2 and d is the distance between them. G is the universal gravitational constant.
After receiving their definitive analytic form from Euler, Newton's axioms of motion were reworked by Lagrange, Hamilton, and Jacobi into very powerful and general methods, which employed new analytic quantities, such as potential, related to force but remote from everyday experience. Newton's universal gravitation was considered proved correct, thanks to the work of Clairaut and Laplace. Laplace looked at the stability of the solar system in Traité du Mécanique Céleste in 1799. In fact the so-called three-body problem was extensively studied in the 19th Century and was not properly understood until much later. The study of the gravitational potential allowed variations in gravitation caused by irregularities in the shape of the earth to be studied both practically and theoretically. Poisson used the gravitational potential approach to give an equation which, unlike Newton's, could be solved under rather general conditions.
Newton's theory of gravitation was highly successful. There was little reason to question it except for one weakness which was to explain how each of the two bodies knew the other was there. Some profound remarks about gravitation were made by Maxwell in 1864. His major work A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field (1864) was written
... to explain the electromagnetic action between distant bodies without assuming the existence of forces capable of acting directly at sensible distances.
At the end of the work Maxwell comments on gravitation.
After tracing to the action of the surrounding medium both the magnetic and the electric attractions and repulsions, and finding them to depend on the inverse square of the distance, we are naturally led to inquire whether the attraction of gravitation, which follows the same law of the distance, is not also traceable to the action of a surrounding medium.
However Maxwell notes that there is a paradox caused by the attraction of like bodies. The energy of the medium must be decreased by the presence of the bodies and Maxwell said
As I am unable to understand in what way a medium can possess such properties, I cannot go further in this direction in searching for the cause of gravitation.
In 1900 Lorentz conjectured that gravitation could be attributed to actions which propagate with the velocity of light. Poincaré, in a paper in July 1905 (submitted days before Einstein's special relativity paper), suggested that all forces should transform according the Lorentz transformations. In this case he notes that Newton's law of gravitation is not valid and proposed gravitational waves which propagated with the velocity of light.
In 1907, two years after proposing the special theory of relativity, Einstein was preparing a review of special relativity when he suddenly wondered how Newtonian gravitation would have to be modified to fit in with special relativity. At this point there occurred to Einstein, described by him as the happiest thought of my life , namely that an observer who is falling from the roof of a house experiences no gravitational field. He proposed the Equivalence Principle as a consequence:-
... we shall therefore assume the complete physical equivalence of a gravitational field and the corresponding acceleration of the reference frame. This assumption extends the principle of relativity to the case of uniformly accelerated motion of the reference frame.
After the major step of the equivalence principle in 1907, Einstein published nothing further on gravitation until 1911. Then he realised that the bending of light in a gravitational field, which he knew in 1907 was a consequence of the equivalence principle, could be checked with astronomical observations. He had only thought in 1907 in terms of terrestrial observations where there seemed little chance of experimental verification. Also discussed at this time is the gravitational redshift, light leaving a massive body will be shifted towards the red by the energy loss of escaping the gravitational field.
Einstein published further papers on gravitation in 1912. In these he realised that the Lorentz transformations will not apply in this more general setting. Einstein also realised that the gravitational field equations were bound to be non-linear and the equivalence principle appeared to only hold locally.
This work by Einstein prompted others to produce gravitational theories. Work by Nordström, Abraham and Mie was all a consequence of Einstein's, so far failed, attempts to find a satisfactory theory. However Einstein realised his problems.
If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean geometry cannot hold in all of them.
Einstein then remembered that he had studied Gauss's theory of surfaces as a student and suddenly realised that the foundations of geometry have physical significance. He consulted his friend Grossmann who was able to tell Einstein of the important developments of Riemann, Ricci (Ricci-Curbastro) and Levi-Civita. Einstein wrote
... in all my life I have not laboured nearly so hard, and I have become imbued with great respect for mathematics, the subtler part of which I had in my simple-mindedness regarded as pure luxury until now.
In 1913 Einstein and Grossmann published a joint paper where the tensor calculus of Ricci and Levi-Civita is employed to make further advances. Grossmann gave Einstein the Riemann-Christoffel tensor which, together with the Ricci tensor which can be derived from it, were to become the major tools in the future theory. Progress was being made in that gravitation was described for the first time by the metric tensor but still the theory was not right. When Planck visited Einstein in 1913 and Einstein told him the present state of his theories Planck said
As an older friend I must advise you against it for in the first place you will not succeed, and even if you succeed no one will believe you.
Planck was wrong, but only just, for when Einstein was to succeed with his theory it was not readily accepted. It was the second half of 1915 that saw Einstein finally put the theory in place. Before that however he had written a paper in October 1914 nearly half of which is a treatise on tensor analysis and differential geometry. This paper led to a correspondence between Einstein and Levi-Civita in which Levi-Civita pointed out technical errors in Einstein's work on tenINovalogicsneakSouthernShadowfromTheGallowssors. Einstein was delighted to be able to exchange ideas with Levi-Civita whom he found much more sympathetic to his ideas on relativity than his other colleagues.
At the end of June 1915 Einstein spent a week at Göttingen where he lectured for six 2 hour sessions on his (incorrect) October 1914 version of general relativity. Hilbert and Klein attended his lectures and Einstein commented after leaving Göttingen
To my great joy, I succeeded in convincing Hilbert and Klein completely.
The final steps to the theory of general relativity were taken by Einstein and Hilbert at almost the same time. Both had recognised flaws in Einstein's October 1914 work and a correspondence between the two men took place in November 1915. How much they learnt from each other is hard to measure but the fact that they both discovered the same final form of the gravitational field equations within days of each other must indicate that their exchange of ideas was helpful.
On the 18th November he made a discovery about which he wrote For a few days I was beside myself with joyous excitement . The problem involved the advance of the perihelion of the planet Mercury. Le Verrier, in 1859, had noted that the perihelion (the point where the planet is closest to the sun) advanced by 38" per century more than could be accounted for from other causes. Many possible solutions were proposed, Venus was 10% heavier than was thought, there was another planet inside Mercury's orbit, the sun was more oblate than observed, Mercury had a moon and, really the only one not ruled out by experiment, that Newton's inverse square law was incorrect. This last possibility would replace the 1/d2 by 1/dp, where p = 2+ for some very small number . By 1882 the advance was more accurately known, 43'' per century. From 1911 Einstein had realised the importance of astronomical observations to his theories and he had worked with Freundlich to make measurements of Mercury's orbit required to confirm the general theory of relativity. Freundlich confirmed 43" per century in a paper of 1913. Einstein applied his theory of gravitation and discovered that the advance of 43" per century was exactly accounted for without any need to postulate invisible moons or any other special hypothesis. Of course Einstein's 18 November paper still does not have the correct field equations but this did not affect the particular calculation regarding Mercury. Freundlich attempted other tests of general relativity based on gravitational redshift, but they were inconclusive.
Also in the 18 November paper Einstein discovered that the bending of light was out by a factor of 2 in his 1911 work, giving 1.74". In fact after many failed attempts (due to cloud, war, incompetence etc.) to measure the deflection, two British expeditions in 1919 were to confirm Einstein's prediction by obtaining 1.98" 0.30" and 1.61" 0.30".
On 25 November Einstein submitted his paper The field equations of gravitation which give the correct field equations for general relativity. The calculation of bending of light and the advance of Mercury's perihelion remained as he had calculated it one week earlier.
Five days before Einstein submitted his 25 November paper Hilbert had submitted a paper The foundations of physics which also contained the correct field equations for gravitation. Hilbert's paper contains some important contributions to relativity not found in Einstein's work. Hilbert applied the variational principle to gravitation and attributed one of the main theorem's concerning identities that arise to Emmy Noether who was in Göttingen in 1915. No proof of the theorem is given. Hilbert's paper contains the hope that his work will lead to the unification of gravitation and electromagnetism.
In fact Emmy Noether's theorem was published with a proof in 1918 in a paper which she wrote under her own name. This theorem has become a vital tool in theoretical physics. A special case of Emmy Noether's theorem was written down by Weyl in 1917 when he derived from it identities which, it was later realised, had been independently discovered by Ricci in 1889 and by Bianchi (a pupil of Klein) in 1902.
Immediately after Einstein's 1915 paper giving the correct field equations, Karl Schwarzschild found in 1916 a mathematical solution to the equations which corresponds to the gravitational field of a massive compact object. At the time this was purely theoretical work but, of course, work on neutron stars, pulsars and black holes relied entirely on Schwarzschild's solutions and has made this part of the most important work going on in astronomy today.
Einstein had reached the final version of general relativity after a slow road with progress but many errors along the way. In December 1915 he said of himself
That fellow Einstein suits his convenience. Every year he retracts what he wrote the year before.
Most of Einstein's colleagues were at a loss to understand the quick succession of papers, each correcting, modifying and extending what had been done earlier. In December 1915 Ehrenfest wrote to Lorentz referring to the theory of November 25, 1915. Ehrenfest and Lorentz corresponded about the general theory of relativity for two months as they tried to understand it. Eventually Lorentz understood the theory and wrote to Ehrenfest saying I have congratulated Einstein on his brilliant results . Ehrenfest responded
Your remark "I have congratulated Einstein on his brilliant results" has a similar meaning for me as when one Freemason recognises another by a secret sign.
In March 1916 Einstein completed an article explaining general relativity in terms more easily understood. The article was well received and he then wrote another article on relativity which was widely read and went through over 20 printings.
Today relativity plays a role in many areas, cosmology, the big bang theory etc. and now has been checked by experiment to a high degree of accuracy.>The traditional gravitational equation is:
The product of the masses is divided by the distance between theme squared, and "G" is the well known constant of proportionality — the universal gravitational constant. According to this equation. The acceleration of gravity that we feel on the earth is given by Gm1/r122 (= 9.8 m/s2 nominally at the surface of the earth) if m1 is the mass of the earth and m2 is mass of the person feeling the acceleration. What we feel when standing is nominally this force since we are constrained to walk about on the earth. If the material surface of the earth were not constraining us, we would then free-fall, accelerating toward the center of mass of the earth.
Given the new theory, the attraction is a function of the energy-density, which, of course, includes the mass. The above traditional equation is a subset of the new. The new equation for gravitational force replaces the masses by the integral over the density and is as follows:
It is fascinating that at C.U. where they have created new matter called Bose-Einstein condensate, the velocity of light in this condensate can be almost as slow as the velocity of sound. It would be instructive to perform diallel line experiments in conjunction with B-E condensate matter. This high-density material could lead to some interesting validations of this new UFT due to the higher energy densities present.
The work of Dr. Ning Li at the University of Alabama at Huntsville is particularly fascinating also, as she is doing high frequency work with super conductors and investigating the quantum states associated with the gravity fields. She has not yet published her full theory, and her work appears to be among the most promising. (See references below)
As the electrons travel along diallel lines, they spin clockwise in a variety of quantum states. Anti-gravity comes as a result of spinning the electrons in the opposite direction. This is like and in conjunction with the creation of anti-matter. By so doing, one gets a negative sign from the A2 term in the above equation, for example, creating an upward rather than a downward force. This is somewhat analogous to a magnetic field being used to suspend objects.
Papers are available on the UFT, and both validating experiments and theory for the above gravitational interaction are available. These papers may be obtained by request. Several experiments are planned and some now are being prepared.
Bibliography:
Alaska, University of; several papers on "red sprites and blue jets;" http://sprite.gi.alaska.edu/
Anderson, J. et. al., Physical Review Letters, Vol. 81 Num. 14, 5 Oct.'98
Katz, J. I., Physical Review Letters, Vol. 83 Num. 9, 30 August 1999
Murphy, E. M., Physical Review Letters, Vol. 83 Num. 9, 30 August 1999
Taylor, J., Binary Pulsars and Relativistic Gravity, reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 66 p 711 Nobel Prize 1994.
Related Papers:
Ning Li and D. G. Torr, Phys. Rev., 43D, 457, 1991.
Ning Li and D. G. Torr, Phys. Rev., 46B, 5489, 1992.
Ning Li and D. G. Torr, Bull. Am. Phys. Sco., 37, 948, 1992.
E. Podkletnov and R. Nieminen, Physica C, 203, 441, 1992.
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