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Date Posted: 07:35:20 01/21/16 Thu
Author: Rashed Ahmed (Happy)
Subject: Re: Becky Schmitt from Northborough/Southborough Massachusetts
In reply to: Rashed Ahmed 's message, "Re: Becky Schmitt from Northborough/Southborough Massachusetts" on 07:33:37 01/21/16 Thu

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>>David Alexander Johnston (December 18, 1949 – May 18,
>>1980) was an American USGS volcanologist who died
>>during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in
>>Washington. A principal scientist on the monitoring
>>team, Johnston perished while manning an observation
>>post 6 miles (10 km) away on the morning of May 18,
>>1980. He was the first to report the eruption,
>>transmitting "Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it!"
>>before he was swept away by a lateral blast.
>>Johnston's remains were never found, but state highway
>>workers discovered remnants of his USGS trailer in
>>1993.
>>
>>Johnston's career took him across the United States,
>>where he studied Augustine Volcano in Alaska, the San
>>Juan volcanic field in Colorado, and long-extinct
>>volcanoes in Michigan. Johnston was a meticulous and
>>talented scientist, known for his analyses of volcanic
>>gases and their relationship to eruptions. This, along
>>with his enthusiasm and positive attitude, made him
>>liked and respected by many co-workers. After his
>>death, other scientists lauded his character, both
>>verbally and in dedications and letters. Johnston felt
>>scientists must do what is necessary, including taking
>>risks, to help protect the public from natural
>>disasters. His work, and that of fellow USGS
>>scientists convinced authorities to close Mount St.
>>Helens to the public before the 1980 eruption. They
>>maintained the closure despite heavy pressure to
>>re-open the area; their work saved thousands of lives.
>>His story became intertwined within the popular image
>>of volcanic eruptions and their threat to society, and
>>a part of volcanology's history. To date, Johnston,
>>along with Harry Glicken, is one of two American
>>volcanologists known to have died in a volcanic
>>eruption.
>>
>>Following his death, Johnston was commemorated in
>>several ways, including a memorial fund established in
>>his name at the University of Washington to fund
>>graduate-level research. Two volcano observatories
>>were established and named after him: one in
>>Vancouver, Washington, and another on the ridge where
>>he died. Johnston's life and death are featured in
>>several documentaries, films, docudramas and books.
>>Along with others who died during the eruption,
>>Johnston's name is inscribed on memorials dedicated to
>>their memory.
>Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy
>concerned with the foundations, methods, and
>implications of science. The central questions of this
>study concern what qualifies as science, the
>reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate
>purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with
>metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example,
>when it explores the relationship between science and
>truth.
>
>There is no consensus among philosophers about many of
>the central problems concerned with the philosophy of
>science, including whether science can reveal the
>truth about unobservable things and whether scientific
>reasoning can be justified at all. In addition to
>these general questions about science as a whole,
>philosophers of science consider problems that apply
>to particular sciences (such as biology or physics).
>Some philosophers of science also use contemporary
>results in science to reach conclusions about
>philosophy itself.
>
>While philosophical thought pertaining to science
>dates back at least to the time of Aristotle,
>philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline
>only in the middle of the 20th century in the wake of
>the logical positivism movement, which aimed to
>formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical
>statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing
>them. Thomas Kuhn's landmark 1962 book The Structure
>of Scientific Revolutions was also formative,
>challenging the view of scientific progress as steady,
>cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed
>method of systematic experimentation and instead
>arguing that any progress is relative to a "paradigm,"
>the set of questions, concepts, and practices that
>define a scientific discipline in a particular
>historial period.[1]
>
>Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in
>which a theory is validated if it makes sense of
>observations as part of a coherent whole, became
>prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers
>such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in
>axiomatic assumptions, such as the uniformity of
>nature. A vocal minority of philosophers, and Paul
>Feyerabend (1924–1994) in particular, argue that there
>is no such thing as the "scientific method", so all
>approaches to science should be allowed, including
>explicitly supernatural ones. Another approach to
>thinking about science involves studying how knowledge
>is created from a sociological perspective, an
>approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and
>Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental
>philosophy approaches science from the perspective of
>a rigorous analysis of human experience.
>
>Philosophies of the particular sciences range from
>questions about the nature of time raised by
>Einstein's general relativity, to the implications of
>economics for public policy. A central theme is
>whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to
>the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be
>reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to
>individual psychology? The general questions of
>philosophy of science also arise with greater
>specificity in some particular sciences. For instance,
>the question of the validity of scientific reasoning
>is seen in a different guise in the foundations of
>statistics. The question of what counts as science and
>what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death
>matter in the philosophy of medicine. Additionally,
>the philosophies of biology, of psychology, and of the
>social sciences explore whether the scientific studies
>of human nature can achieve objectivity or are
>inevitably shaped by values and by social relations.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS (/ˈnjuːtən/;[6] 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27[1]) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophić Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, which helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum. He formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian and, unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day, he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, perhaps because he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. In his later life, Newton became president of the Royal Society. Newton served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint.

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