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Cold fusion - the forbidden energy source -- Knut Holt, 05:49:08 02/16/14 Sun
Cold Fusion - The Salvage from the Energy Crisis?
In 1989 the chemistry professors Stanley Pons and Martin Fleishman reported that they had achieved cold fusion in a palladium anode emerged in a solution of sodium deuteroxide in heavy water D2O. Due to a bad exactness of their report, only few other scientists managed to replicate their findings in the first place. The findings were then dismissed as due to misunderstandings and bad scientific practice, and the matter of cold fusion has since been regarded as a taboo area.
However, some scientists did manage to replicate the findings, and quietly an enormous amount of positive research findings based on experiments of a lot better quality have been published. The phenomenon is again becoming accepted as a legitimate field of research by steadily more scientists.
However, what is really going on is not well understood. Heat production, detected radiation and detected fusion products suggest that some kind of nuclear reaction or fusion takes place, but the reactions do not show the amount of radiation and the ratios of products that known hot fusion reactions do. Therefore other names of the phenomenon are often used, like Low Energy Nuclear Reactions or (LENR) or Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR).
WHAT IS FUSION
By fusion two or more atomic nuclei, protons or neutrons fuse together to form a new atomic nucleus. The new nucleus is held together by the strong forces between the heavy particles, protons and neutrons. These forces are so strong that they win over the repulsing electromagnetic forces between protons.
However, the strong forces only work at a short distance. Therefore the nucleons (neutrons and protons) must be brought very close together. This is difficult because of the repulsing electromagnetic forces between the protons. In traditional fusion this is achieved by very high pressure and temperature in the fusing material.
The mass of a helium nucleus (consisting of two protons and two neutrons) and other light nuclei are less than the mass of the same number of free protons, neutrons or deuterium nuclei. A deuterium nucleus consists of on proton and one neutron. Heavy water contains deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen and is therefore designed D2O. When fusion takes place, this mass difference cannot be lost. It is converted to kinetic energy and gamma radiation. Therefore fusion of protons, neutrons or kernels of the very lightest elements into heavier elements is a very potent energy source.
One has not been able to make a controlled fusion by high temperature and pressure that yields more energy than the input energy yet. The only practical way one has managed to exploit the energy from warm fusion is the hydrogen bomb.
THE PROCESS BEHIND COLD FUSION
There is no fully developed model for cold fusion yet. The hypothesis behind the phenomenon is however very simple: All particles behave according to quantum mechanical laws. These laws say that the coordinates and energy state of a particle at one point in time determine the probability of finding a particle a place with some given coordinates at another point of time, but the exact place cannot be predicted. Actually, a particle can be found anywhere at that other time point, put all places do not have the same probability. Some places are very probable, and others are very improbable. Because of this, even a particle that is not in any net motion nevertheless will shift place randomly to some extend, usually very little, but sometimes more.
By bringing particles and nuclei very near each other by using some force, this will happen: The quantum mechanical behaviour will as always make the particles shift their position more or less all the time, and sometimes they get near enough to let the strong nuclear forces to take action and make them fuse.
According to standard understanding of the standard theory, this cannot happen in such a degree to be detected. Still it does. Either the standard theory is not complete, or one has not learned to use the theory in a right fashion. The mathematical apparatus of the theory is so complicated, that it is impossible to predict what can happen and what cannot happen with a short glance at the equations.
Cold fusion differs in many aspects from warm fusion. It is difficult to produce warm fusion of other things than one deuterium and one tritium kernel. By cold fusion, two deuterium kernels easily fuse to helium, and even fusion involving hydrogen kernels (free protons) have been reported.
Output of neutrons (n), tritium (T), protons (p) and gamma radiation has been reported by cold fusion, but not in the amount predicted by standard understanding. These are the reactions that standard understanding predicts when two deuterium kernels fuse: D + D --> 3He + n, D + D --> T + p, D + D --> 4He + gamma photon.
THE ORIGINAL PONS-FLEISCHMAN SYSTEM
The original experiment exerted by Pons and Fleischmann consisted of these elements: A palladium cathode, a nickel anode and a solution of sodium deuteride NaOD (20%) in heavy water D2O. Sodium deuteride is sodium hydroxide with heavy hydrogen (deuterium) in the OH- ion, and therefore designed as OD-.
When electricity was applied to this electrolytic system, deuterium atoms were produced at the cathode, and oxygen at the anode. The deuterium atoms went into the palladium crystal lattice in great extend before combining to D2.
Excess heat was then produced in the electrolytic cell, apart from the electrolytic heat. Helium, tritium and neutrons were also produced, but the latter two products not in the amounts that would have been produced in a hot fusion. Therefore the fusion reactions in the system are different form those in hot fusion, and probably more complicated.
Only few scientists managed to reproduce the results in the first place, because of bad documentation from the originators. However, some of them succeeded, and gradually the conditions for a satisfactory fusion have been established. The best fusion occurs when the palladium is somewhat over-saturated, that is when there are nearly as many atoms of deuterium as those of palladium in the crystal.
The saturation is controlled by the voltage applied, and by using palladium structures composed of very thin layers or very small grains. The electrolysis in itself is only a means to put deuterium into the palladium crystal matrix.
THERE ARE MANY WAYS OF OBTAINING COLD FUSION
As seen, cold fusion processes can be initiated by packing many deuterium kernels into inter-atomic rooms in a crystal lattice. A critical density for starting a fusion process seems to be the same density as in liquid pure deuterium. Since there is no fusion process in liquid deuterium, the crystal lattice probably packs the deuterium kernels together in tight sub-microscopic groups with much greater density than the average density in the lattice as a whole, and thus allowing quantum mechanical tunnelling between the kernels in the groups.
There are other electrolytic solutions than that used by Fleischman and Pons that can be used in combination with palladium electrodes to obtain cold fusion. By electrolysing a solution of KCL/LiCL/Lid using a palladium anode, signs pointing at cold fusion have been reported, but many attempts of reproducing the results have failed.
Any force that is able to push enough D+ ions into the right types of metal crystal lattice, can be used to deliver cold fusion. For example can signs of fusion be produced by bombarding the right kind of metallic lattice with accelerated D+ - ions.
By an electrical discharge between palladium electrodes in a deuterium gas, signs of fusion have been seen. By such a discharge, plasma consisting of D+ ions and electrons will be formed between the electrodes. The D+ ions will be attracted to the surface of the negative electrode, and a high density of D+ will occur at this surface. Since also these D+ -ions will have a high thermic energy; many of them will be thrown very near each other. Quantum-mechanical tunnelling can then do the rest of the approaching process, so that fusion can take place.
Also high pressure can be used to push enough deuterium into a metal lattice to give fusion. For example, by having finely divided palladium grains in a pressurized deuterium gas, signs of fusion have been produced, and replicated by other scientists.
Also by reactions where nickel metal and H2 combine, signs of fusion have been detected. Even though H2 and not D2 has been used, the reaction has still been reported to take place. This points to a very different reaction mechanism than that of warm fusion. Some scientists speculate that hydrogen atoms can exist in quantum states where the electron and proton are so near each other that the atom reacts like a neutron.
MICROSCOPIC WARM FUSION IN OSCILLATING SONOLUMINATING GAS BUBBLES
By bombarding gas bubbles in a liquid by ultrasonic waves, the bubbles can be brought into an extreme oscillation of expansions and collapses synchronized with the sound frequency.
Such oscillating bobbles can send out light by certain frequencies of expansions and collapses, and by the right compositions of the gas. By each collapse, the spot temperature in the bobble can reach as much as 10 mill degrees, even though the average temperature in the total blending is near room temperature.
When deuterium is present in the oscillating bobbles, fusion has been observed. This fusion is strictly not cold fusion, but resembles hot fusion, and the process sends out neutrons, gamma-rays and tritium atoms as predicted by standard understanding.
The process has not been reported to produce more energy that that put in, but is confirmed by independent investigators.
COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL
Cold fusion in crystal lattices has been shown to produce more energy than that put in. Experimental 1 MW or more experimental reactors has been set up and demonstrated.
Commercial reactors are by now being developed, but no one has yet been able to show a reactor with stabile enough operation to be sold on the market. Commercial household heaters seem to be the first type of reactors these companies try to develop. The hope of the companies is that these will make a way for greater reactors and uses in the market.
By now it is not easy to see how successful cold fusion will be in the energy market. Cold fusion may make a revolution that gives the world cheap clean energy in enormous quantities, but no one knows yet.
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Knut Holt is an internet marketer and consultant focusing at technical and scientific items. To find: Remote controle helicopters, airplanes, cars and boats. Airsoft guns of all models. Chemistry sets. Electronic sets, transmitters and electronic components. Professional microscopes and binoculars. Night vision instruments: ---
http://www.mydeltapi.com
For cosmetic products, supplements to help against common diseases and anti-aging products: ---
http://www.panteraconsulting.com
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Knut_Holt
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CHEMTRAILS - what are they and why do they spray them? -- Knut Holt, 05:47:36 02/16/14 Sun
What Are Those Chemtrails that Aircrafts Leave In the Sky
by Knut Holt
http://www.abicana.com
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For several years people in both urban and rural areas in western countries have frequently observed high-flying aircrafts leaving after themselves tracks that look like ordinary contrails. But they do not dissolve, but instead spread out over the sky and leave a mist shielding much of the sunrays from coming through, and thus alter the weather for hours.
Some people dismiss these so-called chemtrails as observations of ordinary contrails behaving in a special way under certain meteorological conditions, while others think authorities are deliberately spreading the sky with chemical substances for one or more secret purposes.
WHAT IS ACTUALLY OBSERVED
To construct a well-founded explanation, one must first have a clear view about what is actually observed. Even though it is easy to see the phenomenon, many of the details told about are somewhat uncertain, so already at this stage the phenomenon is difficult to assess.
Basically one observes jet planes flying at an altitude of 10000 meters or more that lave after themselves a misty track looking much like an ordinary contrail, but perhaps have a somewhat denser appearance.
Several planes fly approximately at the same time at some regular distance from each other and leave parallel tracks. According to witnesses one can often observe that the same planes turn and fly back to leave a new track parallel to those already made or crossing those. This kind of behavior has been extensively documented also by pictures taken by observers.
The tracks do not dissolve, but widen and eventually run together to make a carpet of milky-looking mist over a wide area. This carpet blocks out much of the sunrays many hours. The mist decreases the temperature at lower altitude, but does not seem to cause rain or other meteorological phenomenons, at least not immediately.
The phenomenon are always confined to a limited area, but this is wide, usually from horizon to horizon. At the borders of this area, one can see that the spreading of these tracks abruptly begins or ends. Before and after the same planes leave ordinary contrails. One can often observe other planes flying over the same area that only leave normal contrails.
The activity seems to be confined to limited periods on a day, at any time during the day, but perhaps more frequent from the early morning to around 4 PM. This massive, but limited, activity occur both in urban areas with normally high air traffic and in rural areas where the air traffic usually is small.
The planes making these tracks always seem to be transport planes of some size, so that they can carry a significant load. People have actually observed and even taking pictures of separate nozzles on the wings of aircrafts spreading out substances, and they associate this observation with the chemtrail activity.
Some people report powder of some sort occasionally falling down over an area where these so-called chemtrails have been laid, and that this powder tend to form thin layers on water surfaces. Some observers have undertaken chemical analyses of water from those areas and report an abnormal content of aluminum or barium in the water.
There are also reports of people feeling ill after a spraying, most often as irritation or allergy-like reactions from the respiratory organs.
EXPLANTIONS SET FORTH
Some explain the phenomenon conventionally that the tracks are ordinary contrails made by aircraft flying in areas where cold air is saturated with dissolved water. The water vapor from the engines will then be all converted to small ice crystals and these will not dissolve because the air already is saturated. As this explanation further goes, the whole sky will be covered with mist because the area is highly trafficked by airplanes.
The conventional explanation has however a problem explaining the navigational behavior of the aircrafts which involves turning and flying back over the same area again. This activity is highly impractical for conventional air traffic and also violates normal traffic regulations.
It also have problems explaining the sharp margins of the sprayed areas and the massive activity of these aircrafts during limited time periods on the day, and that this activity often occur over areas with normally little air traffic. The ability of these tracks to spread out and last for a long time also seems odd, even though this property is difficult to assess.
Some people think the authorities spray germs or toxic substances that will make people sick or infertile to reduce the population of Earth, or that they use populations in epidemiological experiments. The explanation is not as lunatic as it might sound, because certain authorities in certain countries have a documented historical record of using populations as involuntary Guiana pigs. This reason is however unlikely for the bulk of the activity, because also the authority persons and those practically performing the activity would be in danger if this is the purpose.
Some think authorities perform mass vaccination of populations against certain diseases by spreading germs that cause a mild and mostly unremarkable variant of the same diseases. The vaccination could be for serious purposes, or be a grand scale research project to investigate the feasibility of such vaccination programs.
In case of a massive epidemy of a serious disease threatening to break out, ability to vaccinate large populations so cheaply and rapidly would be highly useful, and one can be sure authorities are tempted to develop and try out such methods. The methods have clear ethical problems, though, but historic records tell us that authorities tend to let the usefulness weight heavier than ethical considerations in such cases. Still, it would be a waste of money to do such visitations in a grand scale before a real epidemy is threatening large populations, and such a grand scale vaccination program also has clear hazards, so the explanation can probably be valid only for a part of the activity.
Certain people claiming to have inside information tell that the military spread small aluminum particles in the atmosphere to deflect radar waves and make a zone opaque for insight with radar as a means of defense. The explanation might be valid in a minor scale, but massive spread of particles for that purpose would also make own radar equipment useless.
Some explain the activity as a grand scale weather modification project, or at least heavy research projects to test ways of modifying the weather. The main purpose for the project is said to be shielding the earth from the sunrays by reflecting them back and thereby reduce the atmospheric temperature and counteract the greenhouse effect. Also other effects like inducing rainfall, snowfall or modifying winds may be a part of the purpose. The effect is obtained by spreading particles that work as seeds for formation of clouds, and the misty carpet seen after a spraying session is clouds thus produced, and not the particles themselves.
The fact that the misty sheet produced by the activity actually do shield from sunrays and decrease the temperature, supports this explanation. It is also supported by the fact that politicians and scientists are talking about the greenhouse effect as a serious threat that necessitates grand scale countermeasures. The alleged detection of substances like aluminum or barium after such sessions also support the explanation.
Great areas in Europe and North America have experienced a colder climate the latest years in spite of an increase in global temperature as a whole, which also might be explained as a result of weather modification activities.
Rain- and snowmaking by means of silver iodide crystals spread out in the air is actually done at special occasions, for example to provide rain for the agriculture, and snow for winter sport arrangements, and it is not a great conceptual leap to do something similar in a greater scale but possible with cheaper and less toxic substances than silver iodide.
CONCLUSION
The activity of the aircrafts causing misty sky over large areas is so abnormal in comparison to daily air traffic under ordinary regulations, that one must conclude that authorities perform some kind of purposeful activity not told about openly, and since this seem to occur in many countries, it is probably a kind of international project.
Most probably it is a grand scale weather modification project to counteract the greenhouse effect, or at least scientific activity to test out such a modification.This seems probable both because one can observe that the activity has such a shielding effect, and because countermeasures against global warming are generally spoken of as something necessary and urgent.
The method used seems to be spreading of small particles of aluminum or some salt in a great enough amount to induce cloud formation, but not in such an amount that it interferes with radar or is easily detectable.
Some of the activity may however also have the purpose of trying out airborne vaccines against diseases, and this part of the activity may even be combined with the spraying of weather-modificating substances.
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Knut Holt is a business consultant and marketer interested in the scientific and health fields. To read more about scientific and health topics, and to find interesting fitness products, disease treatment products and techical items please see his web-site.
http://www.abicana.com/health_information.htm
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Hello.Darkness.pdf.rar -- daryjamaa, 18:20:14 01/20/14 Mon
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