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Date Posted: 16:12:54 02/18/00 Fri
Author: Nikolai von Kreitor
Subject: NATO and the Architects of American Lebensraum (endnotes)
In reply to: Nikolai von Kreitor 's message, "NATO and the Architects of American Lebensraum" on 16:10:48 02/18/00 Fri

ENDNOTES

(1) see Anders Stephenson Manifest Destiny. American Expansion and the Empire of Right (Hill and Wang, New York, 1995) p. XI

(2) Josiah Strong Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (New York, 1985) , p. 20. Here quoted from Walter LaFeber The New Empire (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963) , p. 74

(3) Amrose, Stephen E. The Military Dimension: Berlin, NATO and NCS-68 in Paterson, Thomas G.(ed.) The Origins of the Cold War (D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, MA, 1974) p. 178

(4) Turner, Frederick Jackson The Significance of the Frontier in American History (Henry Holt and Co, New York, 1995) p. 1

(5) Turner, Frederick Jackson ibid. p.33

(6) Turner, Frederick Jackson, ibid. p.p. 33, 59

(7) William Appleman Williams The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy in Henry W. Berger (ed.) A William Appleman Williams Reader (Ivan R. Dee, Chicago, 1992) p. 90

(8) William Appleman Williams The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy p. 91

(9) Brooks Adams The Law of Civilization and Decay (The MacMillan Co, New York, 1896)

(10) William Appleman Williams The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy p. 92

(11) William Appleman Williams The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy p. 96

(12) Brooks Adams The New Empire (The MacMillan Co, New York, 1900)

(13) ibid. p. 96

(14) Williams ibid. 97

(15) ibid. p. 98

(16) ibid. p. 99, 100

(17) Brooks Adams America�s Economic Supremacy, p.p. 80, 104-05, David P. Calleo and Benjamin Rowland America and the World Political Economy p. 273

(18) Thomas J. McCormick America�s Half-Century (John Hopkins University Press , Baltimore, 1995) p. 18

(19) McCormick ibid. p.p. 18-19

(20) Brooks Adams America�s Economic Supremacy (The MacMillan Co, New York, 1900)

(21) Ibid. p. 100

(22) ibid. p. 101

(23) William Appleman Williams The Contours of American History , Norton and Company, New York, 1988, p. 474

(24) William Appleman Williams Contours of American History p. 473

(25) A.T. Mahan The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (Boston, 1890) pp.. 53, 28

(26) Walter LaFeber The New Empire. An Interpretation of American Expansion 1860-1898 (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963) p. 88

(27) Williams ibid. p. 86

(28) Williams, William Appleman The Tragedy of American Diplomacy p.p. 71, 72

(29) Graebner p. 134

(30) Graebner p. 134

(31) (Charles Evans Hughes p.. 86)

(32) William Appleman Williams The Contours of American History p. 454

(33) Lloyd C. Gardner The New Deal, New Frontiers, and the Cold War: A Re-examination of American Expansion, 1933-1945 in David Horowitz (ed) Corporations and the Cold War (Monthly Review Press, New York, 1969) p. 108

(35) Dorpalen, Andreas The World of General Houshofer. Geopolitics in Action (New York, 1942), p.224

(36) Peter J. Taylor �Britain and the Cold War. 1945 as Geopolitical Transition� (Guilford Publications,Inc, New York 1990) p. 17. The concept of �Geopolitical regime of hegemony� , used by Taylor, is quite similar to the concept of �Historical regime of hegemony � in the political writings of Antonio Gramschi.

(37) Peter J. Taylor ibid. p. 17

(38) Peter J. Taylor ibid . p. 17

(39) Michio Kaku and Daniel Axelrod To Win a Nuclear War. The Pentagon�s Secret War Planes (South end Press, Boston, 1987) p.p. 63,64

(40) Those views were expressed by Reinhold Niebuhr who, like many American Cold War planners viewed the American future political destiny as Manichean interpretation of the virtually uninterrupted warfare- from the point of the revamped Manifest Destiny Doctrine.

In this conjunction one may recall the view of the American foreign policy by William Appleman Williams. In order to understand the foreign policy of expansionism of the United States Williams urged his students �to study the pirates as a protocommunity which sought in the Renaissance era and afterwards to create its own rules , and prompted widespread fear in the existing empires�. see
Paul M. Buhle and Edward Rice-Maximin William Appleman Williams . The Tregedy of Empire (Routledge, New York and London, 1995) p. 236

One may also recall that while still allies already during the World War II the United States started to prepare for war with the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1945 , at the time of the Conference in Potsdam United States adopted a policy of �string the first blow� in a nuclear war against the Soviet
Union. To that effect a secret document JCS 1496 was drafted on July 19, 1945. (p. 30). The first plan for nuclear attack was drafted soon afterwards by General Dwight Eisenhower at the order of PresidentTruman.

The plan. called TOTALITY (JIC 329/1) envisioned a nuclear attack on the Soviet with 20 to 30 A-bombs. The plan earmarked 20 Soviet cities for obliteration in a first strike: Moscow, Gorki, Kuibyshev, Sverdlovsk, Novosibirsk , Omsk, Saratov, Kazan, Leningrad , Baku, Tashkent, Chelyabinsk , Nizhni Tagil, Magnitogorsk, Molotov, Tbilisi, Stalinsk, Grozny, Irkutsk, and Jaroslavl� (Michio Kaku and Daniel Axelrod To Win a Nuclear War. The Pentagon�s Secret War Planes (South end Press, Boston, 1987)
p.p. 30, 31

(41) Michio Kaku and Daniel Axelrod To Win a Nuclear War. The Pentagon�s Secret War Planes (South end Press, Boston, 1987) p.p. 63,64

(42) Lavrence H. Shoup & William Minter Imperial Brain Trust (Monthly Review Press, New York 1977, p. 117

(43) Lawrence Shoup & William Minter ibid. p. 118

(44) Martin Geoffrey The Life and Thought of Isaiah Bowman (Archon Books, Hamden, Connecticut, 1980) p. 177. One may also recall that Isaiah Bowman already in his in 1921 published book �The New World� envisioned the coming American world empire. Carl Haushofer published in 1934 a trilogy of books titled �Macht und Erde� which, according to Otto Maull, was written as the German response to Bowman�s �The New World� . Martin Geoffrey, ibid. p. 165.

(45) MacKinder, Halford �The Round World and the Winning of the Peace� in Democratic Ideals and Reality (W.W. Norton & Co, New York, NY 1962) p. 274. MacKinder�s article was originally published in Foreign Affairs, vol. 21(July 1943) p.p. 595-605

(46) Memorandum E-B19, October 19, 1940, CFR, War- Peace Studies , NUL. Here quoted after Shoup & Minter, ibid. p. 130

(47) Posvolsky�s statement is in Memorandum A-A11,October 19, 1940 War Peace Studies , Baldwin Papers, Box 117, YUL from which Shoup& Minter quote.

(48) Shoup & Minter ibid. p. 131

(49) Shoup & Minter, ibid. p. 137

(50) Shoup & Minter , ibid p. 136

(51) Noam Chomsky What Uncle Saw Really Wants p. 12 (Odonian Press, Berkeley, 1992). The
policies of American Lebensraum and the geopolitical construct of the American Greater Area are
discussed in dept in Joyce and Gabriel Kolko The Limits of Power. The world and United States Foreign Policy (Harper and Row, New York, 1972)

(52) see Taylor, Peter J. Britain and the Cold War. 1945 as Geopolitical Transition (Gilfor
Publications, New York, 1990. Not only Carl Schmitt but also General Haushofer advocated peaceful coexistence of several competing �Grand Areas� or �Monroes�. Carl Schmitt used the concept of Grossraum, General Haushofer of �Pan-region�.

(53) The political objectives stated in the NSC-68 were after the end (sic!) of the Cold War again restated in the Pentagons Defense Planning Guidance. With the Soviet Union gone United States embarked on a new policy of expansionism.

(54) Nickolas Spykman Geography of Peace , New York, 1944

(55) David Galleo p. 30

(56) Hans J. Morgenthau The Mainsprings of American Foreign Policy Robert A. Goldwin (ed) Readings in American Foreign Policy (Oxford University Press, New York, 1971) p. 642.

(57) Ronald Steel Temptations of a Superpower ( Harvard University Press, 1995) p. 70

(58) N. Spykman America�s Strategy in World Politics p. 468

(59) Clyde Eagleton, Review of America�s Strategy in World Politics , 222 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (July 1942) , 189-190, P. 190. here quoted in David Willkinson Spykman and Geopolitics in Zippo (ed) p. 82

(60) Nickolas J. Spykman and A.A. Rollins �Geographical Objectives in Foreign Policy I, American Political Science Review , vol. 33 , 1939 , p. 394
(61) David P. Galleo and Benjamin M. Rowland America and the World Political Economy. Atlantic Dreams and National Realities (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1973) p. 18

(62) ibid. p. 44

(63) ibid. p. 46

(64) ibid. p. 61

(65) Stephen E. Ambrose The Military Dimension : Berlin, NATO and NSC-68 in Thomas G. Paterson The Origins of the Cold War (D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, 1974) p. 178

(66) Stephen E. Ambrose The Military Dimension : Berlin, NATO and NSC-68 in Thomas G. Paterson The Origins of the Cold War (D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, 1974) p. 117

(67) Stephen E. Ambrose , ibid. p. 182

(68) The Wall Street Journal, April 5, 1949

(69) Kenneth Thompson -Political Realism and the Crisis of World Politics- An American Approach (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1960) - at p. 124

(70) Leopold Kohr -The Breakdown of Nations -ibid., at p. 203

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